第7章

                                      You  could  then  go  on  to  discuss  the  responses,  such  as,

        frustration  may  lead  to  aggression.

        PRO—CON

        Present  a  two-sided  discussion  of  a  value-laden  topic.  When  using  this  method,  be  certain  to  give  each  side

        equal  weight.  Let  the  students  decide  for  themselves  which  side  they  want  to  take.  For  example,  the  topic  of

        deinstitutionalization  has  an  inherent  adversarial  challenge.  On  the  one  hand,  research  shows  that  many

        institutionalized  patients  can  exist  and  improve  in  a  “least  restrictive  environment.”  Letting  them  out  of

        institutions,  moreover,  is  economically  beneficial  to  the  various  state  and  local  governments  and  thus  to  the

        taxpayer.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  patients  are  deinstitutionalized  in  communities  lacking  sufficient

        services,  the  former  patients  will  be  forced  out  onto  the  streets  to  fend  for  themselves.  Such  a  situation  can  be

        dangerous  both  to  them  and  to  the  communities  in  which  they  reside.

        ASCENDING—DESCENDING

        Arrange  lecture  topics  according  to  their  importance,  familiarity,  or  complexity.  For  example,  arrange  the

        major  psychological  disorders  from  most  debilitating  to  least  debilitating,  or  from  hardest  to  easiest  to

        diagnose.

        TO  KEEP  THEIR  ATTENTION  FROM  WANDERING

        During  the  standard  50-minute  hour,  your  students’  attention  will  frequently  wander  in  response  to

        external  distractions  (attractive  fellow  students,  campus  newspapers,  outside  noises)  and  internal

        distractions  (hunger,  fatigue  from  late-night  parties  or  athletic  practice,  distress  over  an  exam  failed  during

        xiv

        the  preceding  class  period,  sexual  daydreams  whose  fantasy  is  much  more  stimulating  than  any  lecture).

        This  fierce  competition  means  that  at  any  given  time  many  students  are  unaware  of  the  important  things

        you  have  said.  (Try  collecting  a  sample  of  your  students’  notes  from  time  to  time  to  see  how  much  of  your

        output  was  never  received  or  was  grossly  distorted.)

        Audience  distractions  may  be  minimized  in  several  ways:

        .  Timing:  Hold  your  main  points  to  about  5  minutes  each  (never  more  than  10  minutes)  and

        insert  a  bit  of  humor,  an  anecdote,  or  an  opportunity  for  a  few  questions  into  the  transition

        period  preceding  the  next  main  point.  An  outline  on  the  board  or  a  mimeographed  outline  is

        beneficial  in  keeping  the  students–and  yourself–on  track.

        .  Variety:  Use  catchy  stylistic  devices  (stories,  clever  brief  demonstrations)  and  change  your

        expressive  style  (volume,  pacing,  pregnant  pauses)  to  add  variety  to  the  rather  narrow  band  of

        stimuli  involved  in  straight  talk.  Although  you  have  written  out  your  lecture,  do  not  read  it!

        .  Mini-climaxes:  Draw  your  information  together  at  several  points  throughout  the  lecture,

        reemphasizing  relevant  ideas  and  conceptual  ties  and  providing  those  students  who  may  have

        “zoned  out”  earlier  with  the  means  to  reenter  the  flow  of  information.

        .  Value  the  ending:  The  conclusion  of  the  lecture  is  vital  to  its  total  impact;  often,  due  to  the  recency

        effect,  the  conclusion  will  be  remembered  best.  Use  it  well.  Never  rush  in  the  last  quarter  of  the

        class  to  say  quickly  all  of  the  essential  points.  It  is  better  to  reserve  the  time  needed  to  effectively

        summarize,  even  if  students  are  left  to  expand  a  few  of  the  main  points  on  their  own.

        IN  ADDITION  TO  LECTURE

        DISCUSSIONS

        Discussions  have  limited  value  in  introductory  courses  for  several  reasons.  Classes  are  frequently  too  large

        for  their  effective  use;  extroverts  in  the  front  rows  may  carry  on  a  lively  dialogue  while  their  peers  at  the  rear

        call  up  their  favorite  daydreams.  In  addition,  discussions  can  be  a  “pooling  of  ignorance”  because  students

        may  not  have  read  the  assigned  material  in  the  text  and  may  lack  the  background  necessary  to  contribute  to

        a  meaningful  discussion.  Despite  these  considerations,  students  benefit  from,  and  enjoy,  sharing  their  ideas

        and  experiences.  The  goal  is  to  make  that  sharing  educationally  beneficial.  Here  are  some  suggestions:

        .  Make  your  intention  clear  to  the  students  by  saying  “Let’s  talk  about  how  you  feel  when  you’ve

        been  punished—when  your  parents  criticize  you  or  you  get  a  ticket  for  a  traffic  violation,”  or

        “What  do  you  think  influences  our  self-esteem?