第48章
If so, how might they organize it differently than
Skinner’s community? (From Koss)
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
Punishment and the Criminal Justice System. Skinner and his followers identified several
conditions that must be met for punishment to be effective. Your text discusses three of them: it must
be immediate, it must be consistent, and it must be sufficiently aversive but not overly aversive.
Some other conditions that make punishment more effective are that: it should be directly related to
the problem behavior so that it is clearly seen as a consequence of the behavior; it should be part of
a larger process in which the reason for the punishment is clearly explained and the desirable
behavior is clearly explained; the person should be rewarded for engaging in more desirable
behaviors. In examining today’s criminal justice system in the United States, how many of these
conditions does it consistently meet? In most cases, students agree that it does not meet many of
them, if any of them. Perhaps this is contributes to the high recidivism rate we have in our justice
system. What ideas do students have to utilize skinner’s conditions and perhaps improve the
effectiveness of the current system?
MORE ON BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Have students identify a behavior they would like to change. Discuss behavior modification
principles with them and have them fill out Student Activity 5.4 (behavior modification) as part of
developing a plan to modify the behavior they identified. It is important to review the qualities of a
good goal (i.e. it is specific, it is behavioral, it is quantifiable, it is reasonably attainable). And since
choosing an effective reward is crucial to making a plan such as this work, review the qualities of a
good reward (i.e. it should be something they really want, but can live without, in case they fail to
achieve their sub goals, it should be something they have complete control over). This can be a
useful demonstration of behavior modification as well as an activity that can really improve the
quality of some students’ lives.
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Albert Bandura (b. 1925)
When Daddy spanks Johnny for misbehaving, he may inadvertently be providing Johnny with a
model of aggressive behavior that Johnny will incorporate into his own pattern of behavior. This
discovery is only one of the important observations that Albert Bandura has brought to the
attention of psychologists and sociologists in recent years.
Graduating from the University of British Columbia in 1949 at the age of 24, Bandura went on to
earn his doctorate in clinical psychology at the State University of Iowa in 1952. There, under the
guidance of Kenneth Spence, who also served as mentor to Neal Miller and John Dollard, Bandura
realized the need for more careful examination of the behavior modification process as it unfolds
during psychotherapy. He drew from Hullian learning theory, Skinnerian behaviorism, and the
current theories of modeling and imitation to formulate his own groundbreaking social learning
theory—behavior modification broadened to a socially oriented context.
Bandura began his studies of aggression with children as participants. In the course of his
experiments, he discovered that the kinds of behavior exhibited by parents and the attitudes they
expressed toward aggression were vital in determining their children’s behavior. The implications
of his results were enormous, evoking concern among psychologists and the public over the impact
that excessive violence on television and other media was having on impressionable young minds.
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Bandura synthesized these and other research results in Principles of Behavior Modification,
published in 1969. An important and precisely written book, it challenged Skinner’s contention
that mental processes should not be considered in a science of behavior. Bandura’s work won him
a Guggenheim Fellowship and election as president of the American Psychological Association in
1974. A significant product of his fellowship was his classic text, Aggression: A Social Learning
Analysis.
One of those individuals who is truly happy only when engaged in a number of projects
simultaneously, Bandura is currently conducting research at several different levels. On a broad
theoretical level, he is studying the development of self-efficacy and the relationship between
people’s moral codes and principles and conduct. On a more practical level, he is developing the
use of modeling as an essential ingredient of psychotherapy. Bandura published a compendium of
his research and thinking, Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, in
1986.
Konrad Lorenz (b. 1903)
Lorenz obtained his M.D. in 1928 and Ph.D. in 1933 from the Anatomical Institute of the University
of Vienna. Lorenz is widely regarded as the father of ethology, the study of animal behavior as
observed in the natural habitat. His major contributions include research on imprinting and
aggressive behavior, for which he received the Nobel Prize. Lorenz espoused a hydraulic model to
account for aggression, arguing that all stored energy, including aggressive energy, must eventually
be discharged. His most influential work is On Aggression (1966).
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849—1936)
It is ironic that Ivan Pavlov, whose pioneering work laid the foundations for the behaviorist school
of thought in psychology, believed that psychology was “completely hopeless” as an independent
science. Pavlov rather saw his work on conditioning as a problem of physiology, a way in which to
discover the physical properties of the brain.
Born in 1849, the son of a village priest, Pavlov received his early education in a seminary school,
fully intending to follow his father into the priesthood. Nevertheless, after reading several books on
physiology, he changed his mind and decided on a career in the natural sciences. Though he
encountered resistance at home, he entered the University of St. Petersburg and obtained his basic
degree in physiology in 1875.
Pavlov’s research for the next 20 years was concerned primarily with the study of digestive
processes, and it was for his work in this area that he won the Nobel Prize in 1904. It was in the
course of directing a number of experiments on the digestive glands that he first became aware of
the significance of the conditioned response. He had been working with dogs as experimental
animals in an effort to establish the precise function of saliva in the digestive process, when he
noticed that many of the dogs secreted saliva even before meat was administered to them. He
quickly determined that this “psychic response” occurred whenever the dogs either had a
preliminary glimpse of the food or heard the approaching footsteps of the lab assistant who fed
them.
This was so unexpected a phenomenon that he decided to pursue the process as a physiological
problem, receiving generous funding for the enterprise when the Soviet government came to power.
The new regime was anxious to push forward biological and behavioral research, and there was in
Pavlov, Nobel laureate and brilliant experimentalist, a man who could bring the Soviet Union into
the vanguard of scientific research. A large number of colleagues and assistants joined Pavlov in
his work, thus establishing the longest-lived research project in the history of psychology. The
Pavlovian paradigm is still used as the major approach to the study of psychology in the Soviet
Union.
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Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904—1990)
B. F. Skinner was born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, the son of a lawyer. He attended Hamilton
College where he majored in English, hoping to become a writer. During his last year at Hamilton,
Skinner sent some short stories he had written to the poet Robert Frost, hoping for some helpful
criticism. Much to Skinner’s surprise, Frost replied enthusiastically, encouraging the young author
to pursue a writing career. Skinner took the advice seriously and set aside a block of time following
graduation in which to apply himself to his chosen discipline. In looking back on that year, Skinner
wryly commented that while he did indeed write well, he also discovered that he had nothing
important to say.
To remedy that situation, he returned to academia as a graduate student in psychology. He had
done much reading during his year away from school, and in the course of it, had discovered the
works of John B. Watson. The story of Watson’s pioneering efforts excited Skinner’s interest and
thus determined his decision to study psychology. Skinner was accepted at Harvard and earned
his Ph.D. in experimental psychology in 1931. He continued with postdoctoral work until 1936,
when he accepted a teaching position at the University of Minnesota. Throughout this period,
Skinner had been formulating and testing his theories on conditioning. So impressive were the
results he achieved in controlling the behavior of laboratory animals, the U.S. government
employed him in a top-secret project during World War II. Skinner was given funding to condition
pigeons to guide missiles directly down the smokestacks of warships.
After the war, Skinner did not hesitate to apply the techniques he had developed to human
participants. On moving to Indiana University as chairman of its new psychology department, he
constructed his famous “air crib”, a sound-proofed, germ-free “box” enclosed in clear plastic and
intended as an environment in which infants could spend much of their time. In 1948, Skinner
returned to Harvard University as a member of the faculty. There he developed the Skinner Box, a
chamber in which animal behavior (particularly that of rats and pigeons) could be precisely
recorded and prepared for statistical analysis. The apparatus had an immediate impact on
experimental laboratories in universities across the country.
Skinner became convinced that the learning techniques he had hit on with his methodology could
be translated to the environment of the classroom, and so spent most of the 1950s perfecting his
programmed teaching modules for schoolchildren. With these, children could acquire information
and skills while being led through a series of questions, each of their correct responses eliciting a
reinforcing confirmation.
Throughout his career, Skinner published prolifically, and the American Psychological Association
honored him for his immense contribution with their Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award
in 1958. Though he retired as the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard, Skinner did not
become idle. In the decade before his death, he published his autobiography, Particulars of My Life, a
book on aging, in 1983, and continued to be active, writing, and espousing the controversial brand
of behaviorism for which he became famous.
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874—1949)
Edward Thorndike was born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, the son of a lawyer. He graduated
from Wesleyan University in Connecticut in 1875, but showed no interest in psychology until he
read William James’ Principles of Psychology, after which he decided to study under James at
Harvard. Thorndike’s initial experiments were conducted in the basement of James’ home. When
James lost interest in experimental work, Thorndike left Harvard and obtained his Ph.D. at
Columbia University. There he conducted his famous experiments on cats in puzzle boxes.
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Thorndike was among psychology’s most prolific and versatile scientists, publishing more than
500 monographs, books, and articles during his career. He applied his considerable intellect to a
wide range of topics, including individual differences, attitudes, vocabulary, intelligence, learning,
and memory. His many writings include the influential book, Animal Intelligence.
TIMELINE
Yea Event
r
1898 Edward L. Thorndike proposed that learning was controlled by its consequences,
an idea that he termed the ”Law of Effect.”
1904 Ivan P. Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, discovered classical conditioning.
1905 Albert Einstein developed his theory of relativity.
1909 Henry Ford began the mass production of the Model T, and auto travel became a
democratic experience.
1913 John B. Watson published Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, establishing his
brand of behaviorism as an approach to studying learning and behavior.
19141918
World War I was fought.
1927 Wolfgang K.hler coined the term “insight” to describe a kind of learning in which
the organism suddenly arrived at a solution to a problem.
1932 Edward C. Tolman published Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men, a book
outlining one of the earlier cognitive theories of learning.
1938 B. F. Skinner published The Behavior of Organisms, a book describing the basic
principles of operant conditioning.
1943 Penicillin was discovered.
1953 B. F . Skinner published Science and Human Behavior, a book that applied the basic
principles of operant conditioning to understanding human learning and
behavior.
1959 David Premack discovered that preferred activities can be used to reinforce less
preferred activities, an idea soon to become known as the Premack Principle.
1961 Richard J. Herrnstein proposed the matching law, the notion that behavior in a
choice situation matches the frequency of reinforcement associated with each of
the choice alternatives.
1962 Albert Bandura proposed his model of social learning theory, a cognitive account
of how imitation and modeling influence learning.
1966 John Garcia and Robert A. Koelling discovered that animals learn to associate
some stimuli with the consequences of their behavior more quickly than other
stimuli, reflecting natural biases in how animals adapt to their environment.
1969 The first man landed on the moon.
1972 Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner proposed that in classical conditioning,
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organisms learn the correlation between conditioned stimuli and reinforcement.
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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS
Anderson, J. R. (1993). Problem Solving and Learning. American Psychologist, 48(l), 35–44. Describes
Anderson’s ACT* theory, as an elaboration of Newell and Simons’ work, and suggests that it can
account for the acquisition of problem-solving skills.
Anderson, J. R. (1995). Learning and Memory: An Integrated Approach. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
An excellent text on learning and memory. Includes a through review of both historical and
contemporary research. Emphasizes two themes, the neural basis of learning and memory and
the adaptive nature of learning and memory, throughout.
Bower, G. H. (1994). In Appreciation of E. A. Hilgard’s Writings on Learning Theories. Psychological
Science, 5(4), 181–182. Review of Hilgard’s Conditioning and Learning and Theories of Learning, with
a view toward ecological validity in research.
Carey, S., & Gelman, R. (eds.) (1991). The Epigenisis of Mind: Essays on Biology and Cognition.
Hillsdale, NJ: L. Eribaum & Associates. The Jean Piaget Symposium series. Consists of papers
presented at the symposium.
Klein, S. B. (1987). Learning: Principles and Applications. New York: McGraw-Hill. A well-written text
that presents material on both animal and human learning and memory processes.
Rescorla, R. (1966). Predictability and Number of Pairings in Pavlovian Fear Conditioning. Psychonomic
Science, 4(11), 383–384. Describes Rescorla’s classic experiment on the importance of contingency
to classical conditioning.
Smith, R. M., et al. (1990). Learning to Learn across the Life Span. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Compilation of papers from conferences held at Northern Illinois University.
Tighe, T. J. (1982). Modern Learning Theory: Foundations and Fundamental Issues. Includes many
examples of shaping, including a baby’s first words, a child’s first attempts to print letters, and
the attempts of a person to remain upright while learning to skate.
Wilkie, D. M. (1995). Time–Place Learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4(3), 85–89. An
overview of time–place learning in animals and its relevance to their natural foraging habits, as
well as offering insights into a new framework for studying animals’ memory.
DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 8: LEARNING AND CONDITIONING
Overview
Learning is the process that enables humans and other animals to profit from experience,
anticipate events, and adapt to changing conditions. Explains the basic learning principles
and the methods psychologists use to study and modify behavior. Also demonstrates how
cognitive processes such as insight and observation influence learning.
Key Issues
Pavlov’s discovery of classical conditioning, how classical conditioning can suppress the
immune system of rats, an instrumental and classical conditioning experiment by John Watson,
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operant behavior and conditioning by B. F. Skinner, and conditioned therapy for agoraphobia.
Archival Demonstrations
Nobel Prize winner Ivan Pavlov discovers the concept of classical conditioning in an
experiment originally intended to study digestion and the action of the salivary glands.
Dr. Robert Ader and colleague Nicholas Cohen condition rats to suppress their immune
systems in an experiment involving an artificial sweetener.
In the controversial experiment on classical and instrumental conditioning, John Watson
conditions a “little Albert” to fear a rat that he had once liked.
Psychologist B. F. Skinner examines the effects of positive and negative reinforcement on the
behavior of people and animals.
New Interview
Howard Rachlin looks at what developments have occurred in the field of operant condition
since the time of B. F. Skinner
FILMS AND VIDEOS
Animal Behavior: The Mechanism of Imprinting (1977). IU (CORT), 14 minutes
From the first hours of life, ducklings recognize their mother and follow her everywhere. Do they
know her instinctively?