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which argued that racial differences were inherited. The article soon met with a
barrage of criticisms charging that Jensen was a racist.
1973 Richard Herrnstein published IQ in the Meritocracy, a controversial book stressing
the societal consequences of differences in intelligence.
1983 Howard Gardner published Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences,
outlining a new theory of intelligence that emphasized athletic, musical, and
interpersonal skills, as well as mental skills, in defining intelligence.
1984 Robert Sternberg published Toward a Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, outlining a
new theory of intelligence that stressed the multi-faceted nature of intelligence.
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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory In Practice. New York: Basicbooks. An excellent
overview of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.
Hallahan, D. P., & Kauffman, J. M. (1982). Exceptional Children: Introduction to Special Education, (2nd
Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Among topics covered are definitions and
classifications of mental retardation, causes of retardation, methods of measurement, and
educational considerations.
Herrnstein, R., & Murray, C. (1994). The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life.
New York: Free Press. A controversial text that suggests that differences in cognitive ability are
polarizing America into a cognitive elite and a cognitive underclass. Suggests that differences in
IQ score among ethnic groups are partially genetic.
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T., Boykin, A., Brody, N., Ceci, S., Halpern, D., Loehlin, J., Perloff,
R., Sternberg, R., & Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns. American Psychologist,
51(2), 77–101. An excellent resource on the concept of intelligence. Presents findings of a task
force established by the American Psychological Association to report on the issues of what is
known and unknown about intelligence. Significant conceptualizations of intelligence are
reviewed, including the psychometric approach, theories of multiple forms of intelligence,
cultural variations, theories of developmental progressions, and biological approaches.
Plomin, R., & Rende, R. (1991). Human Behavioral Genetics. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 161–190.
An excellent review and introduction to the field of human behavioral genetics.
Rose, S. A., & Feldman, J. F. (1995). Prediction of IQ and Specific Cognitive Abilities at 11 Years from
Infancy Measures. Developmental Psychology, 31(4), 685–696. Assessments at seven months and 1
year may predict some cognitive abilities at ages 7 and 11.
Rowe, D. C., Vazsonyi, A. T., & Flannery, D. J. (1995). Ethnic and Racial Similarity in Development
Process: A Study of Academic Achievement. Psychological Science, 6(1), 33–38. Interesting research on
the impact of family environment on results of academic achievement measures.
Rushton, J. P. (1997). Race, IQ, and the APA Report on the Bell Curve. American Psychologist, 52(l), 69–
70. Comments on the APA Task Force findings about what is known and unknown about
intelligence. The author argues that the findings on the issue of race were in error. The origins of
racial differences in IQ need to be considered as fairly from the hereditarian perspective as from
the environmentalist perspective. Areas of omitted evidence are discussed, which, had they been
added, would have bolstered the consistency of the East Asian-European-African IQ gradient.
Sternberg, R. J. (1994). 468 Factor-Analyzed Data Sets: What They Tell Us and Don’t Tell Us About
Human Intelligence. Psychological Science, 5(2), 63–65. Presents a meta-analysis of 468 data sets,
which had used a variety of analytic models and assessment instruments.
Sternberg, R., & Wagner, R. (1989). Individual Differences in Practical Knowledge and Its Acquisitions. In
Learning and Individual Differences: Advances in Theory and Research. New York: W. H. Freeman &
Co, Publishers, 255–278. Examines the distinctions between academic knowledge and practical
knowledge, and discusses the nature and acquisition of practical knowledge, which is defined
as knowledge, and demonstrates the importance of such knowledge for both academic and
everyday life situations.
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 16: TESTING AND INTELLIGENCE
Overview
The field of psychological assessment and the efforts of psychologists and other professionals
to assign values to different abilities, behaviors, and personalities.
Key Issues
Psychometrics, racial and cultural bias, intelligence and aptitude tests, the problems with IQ
testing, seven kinds of intelligence, and limitations in testing practical intelligence.
Demonstrations
Racial bias in intelligence and aptitude tests.
Philip Zimbardo examines new tests that propose multiple factors and aspects of intelligence.
Archival Interview
Psychologist William Curtis Banks examines the misuse of intelligence and aptitude testing.
FILMS AND VIDEOS
Eye of the Storm (1971). Xerox Film, 29 minutes
A now classic demonstration of minimal cue differences in creating discrimination by Jane Elliott, a
grade-school teacher in Riceville, Iowa. Arbitrarily designating “blue” and later “brown” eyes as
superior generated remarkable effects on her students. A classic study, well presented.
Generation Upon Generation (1974). TLF, 52 minutes
Examines the complex code of human inheritance—from the experiments of pioneer geneticist
Gregor Mendel to the discoveries of today’s sophisticated laboratories. From The Ascent of Man
series. Good science, but somewhat tedious.
Intelligence (1990). Insight Media, 30 minutes
Graphically demonstrates the differences between the intellectually gifted and the developmentally
delayed individual. Discusses the difficulty in defining intelligence and explains what intelligence
tests are designed to measure. Describes the origins of IQ tests and presents the argument as to
whether the tests measure aptitude or achievement. Addresses the question of whether intelligence
is changeable or fixed.
IQ Testing and the School (1991). Insight Media, 60 minutes
Examines the different tests devised to measure intelligence and achievement, focusing on the
WISC-R, and the issues of reliability and validity. Also explores other factors affecting school
achievement, such as teacher expectations, teaching styles, and class structure. Shows how
students at all levels of ability benefit from a cooperative learning environment. Discusses the needs
of gifted and developmentally delayed children.
Nature/Nurture (1986). NCAU (FFHS), 52 minutes
Looks at different influences on human behavior and how some characteristics are inherited and
others are acquired. Examines a study of identical twins separated at birth to answer questions
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about nature versus nurture. Illustrates that knowing what is genetic, chemical, or voluntary in
behavior helps people adapt the environment to themselves and themselves to the environment.
From the Human Animal series, hosted by Phil Donahue.
Race, Intelligence, and Education (1974). TLF, 53 minutes
Introduces Dr. H. J. Eysenck, advocate of the theory that heredity influences intelligence more than
environment does. Presents six other scientists who discuss their controversial ideas as well as the
theories of other American psychologists and sociologists. Great for stimulating classroom
discussion
They Call Me Names (1972). EMC UC, 20 minutes
This film examines how the “inferior” stereotype of the mentally or developmentally delayed
individual affects their lives. The film also provides a glimpse of the techniques used in providing
suitable living environments for the mentally impaired, going beyond custodial care.
CASE STUDY LECTURE LAUNCHER
At the age of 37, Esquire columnist Bob Greene started to suspect that he was dumber than he had
been in high school. At 17, he had been able to add, subtract, and multiply without using a
calculator. Twenty years later, those skills seemed to have disappeared. To see if he could still make
the grade, Greene decided to retake the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), the three-hour examination
of verbal and mathematical abilities that many colleges use to select students for admission. Greene
sent in his $11, and on the designated Saturday morning, he showed up at his local high school
with six sharpened no. 2 pencils in his pocket. After one hour, “all of us looked dazed, unhappy,
and disoriented, although I believe that I was the only student to go to the water fountain and take
an Inderal for his blood pressure” (Greene, 1985).
The SAT was designed as a standardized measure of high school students’ academic performance.
Admissions officers had difficulty interpreting grade-point averages from thousands of high
schools with different standards and grading policies. Although the tests were designed as
objective evaluations, they have been accused of bias, and, despite many revisions over the years, it
has been difficult to quell those accusations. Across all ethnic groups, average SAT scores increase
as family income goes up. Whites and Asian Americans consistently outperform Mexican
Americans, Puerto Ricans, and African Americans (Hacker, 1986). Men, on the average, score
higher than women do (Gordon, 1990).
However, the SAT is changing. Consider the question of calculators. When the SAT was introduced
in 1941, pocket calculators did not exist. When Greene took the test for the second time, the proctor
instructed that “Calculators or calculator watches may not be used.”
When Greene’s test results finally arrived in the mail, his hands were shaking. He felt ridiculous.
After all, he already had a college degree and a successful career. Nevertheless, he nervously ripped
open the envelope. Not surprisingly for a writer, Greene’s verbal score had gone up 56 points. In
math, over the two decades, his score had nose-dived by 200 points. Just as it is difficult to know
why some groups perform better than others on the SAT, it is impossible to know for sure why Bob
Greene’s math score plummeted. Wasn’t the test supposed to measure his basic aptitude for math—
what he understood and not just what he had learned?