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c) The global versus specific dimension can be assessed by asking
to what extent is a causal factor highly specific and limited to
a particular task or situation?
3. Attribution made will impact both emotions and subsequent
motivation settings, regardless of the true reason for success or failure;
thus beliefs are important because they lead to:
a) Different interpretations of past performance and general
worth
b) Different emotions, goals, and effort in the present situation
c) Different motivation in the future
4. Seligman posits explanatory style, the individual鈥檚 level of optimism or
pessimism, as affecting activity and passivity, persisting and giving
up, taking risks and playing it safe
a) Pessimistic attributional style focuses on causes of failure as
being internally generated, with situation and one鈥檚 role in
causing it as stable and global
b) Optimistic attributional style attributes failure to external causes
and to events that are unstable or modifiable and specific
c) Causal explanations reverse when outcome is a success
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CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION
C. Work and Organizational Psychology
1. Organizational psychologists study various aspects of
a) Human relations
b) Overall quality of life at work
2. Apply theories of management, decision making, and development to
work settings
a) Equity theory proposes that workers are motivated to maintain
fair or equitable relationships with other relevant persons
(i) Workers note their own inputs and outcomes, and
compare them with inputs and outcomes of other
workers
(ii) Satisfaction occurs for Worker A when (Outcome A 梅
Input A = Outcome B 梅 Input B)
(iii) Dissatisfaction for Worker A occurs when (Outcome
A 梅 Input A 1 Outcome B 梅 Input B)
b) Expectancy theory proposes that workers are motivated when
they expect their efforts and performance on the job will result
in desired outcomes. The theory emphasizes three
components:
(i) Expectancy: the perceived likelihood that a worker鈥檚
efforts will result in successful performance
(ii) Valence: the perceived attractiveness of particular
outcomes
(iii) Instrumentality: the perception that performance will
be rewarded
V.A Hierarchy of Needs
A. Maslow posited that the individual鈥檚 basic motives formed A Hierarchy Of Needs, with
needs at each level requiring satisfaction before achieving the next level
1. Biological: Bottom level needs such as hunger and thirst require
satisfaction before other needs can begin operation.
2. Safety: Requirement to attend to protection from danger, need for
security, comfort, and freedom from fear.
3. Attachment: Needs to belong, to affiliate with others, to love and to be
loved.
4. Esteem: Needs to like oneself, to see oneself as competent and effective,
and to do what is necessary to earn the esteem of others.
5. Cognitive: Humans demand stimulation of thought, need to know our
past, to comprehend puzzles of current existence, and to predict the
future.
6. Esthetic: Need for creativity, and the human desire for beauty and
order.
7. Self-actualization: Individual has moved beyond basic needs in the
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
quest for fullest development of his/her potential. Individual is self-
aware, self-accepting, socially responsive, creative, spontaneous, open
to novelty and challenge
8. Transcendence: a step beyond fulfillment of individual potential, may
lead some individuals to higher states of consciousness and a cosmic
vision of one鈥檚 part in the universe
B. Maslow鈥檚 hierarchy presents an upbeat view of human motivation, with the core of the
theory being the need for each individual to grow and actualize his/her highest potential
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. William James proposed that humans rely on instinctual behaviors even more than other
animals. Twenty-five years later, Sigmund Freud posited that humans experience drive
states that arise from life instincts and death instincts. What is significant about the
difference in these two perspectives?