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It worked because it changed what had been an intrinsically rewarding activity into an activity
that was done for an extrinsic monetary reward. Then, when the extrinsic reward was removed,
the boys no longer had intrinsic or extrinsic motivation to engage in the problem behavior. In
simple terms, the fun was taken out of it.
Psychologist Mark Lepper offers the following conclusions about the research and theory on the
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effects of reward on subsequent motivation:
. Punishment is usually thought to create compliant behavior change without
internalization of the underlying attitudes, values, morality, or principles. Reward has
been assumed to enhance likelihood that the desired behavior change will be internalized.
. Festinger’s dissonance theory clearly distinguishes between public compliance and private
acceptance in terms of the person’s perception of the external versus internal locus of
pressure to behave in the given way. Private acceptance (internalized behavior change)
involves the actor believing he or she had sufficient freedom of decision to refuse to do a
behavior and that the decision was not overdetermined by threats, incentives, or someone
else’s justification.
. When extrinsic rewards are imposed on an activity that was formerly freely chosen because
of its intrinsic value to the child, subsequent motivation to engage in that activity is
reduced. This is true for task-contingent rewards.
. Performance-contingent rewards do not necessarily undermine intrinsic motivation as
task-contingent rewards do.
. The greatest loss of intrinsic motivation comes when the pupil perceives his or her task
behavior to be under surveillance and extrinsically rewarded.
Basis of Motivation and Its Theoretical Perspectives
Motivation is defined as the concept we use when describing the forces acting on or within an
organism to initiate and direct behavior. We also use the concept to explain differences in intensity
of behavior and to indicate the direction of behavior. Increased intensity of behaviors is thought to
result from increased levels of motivation. For example, when we are hungry, we direct our energies
to obtaining food.
We study motivation because both casual and scientific observation tell us that behavior is often
triggered by something. Something motivates us to behave in a certain way. Motivation includes
certain characteristics, such as activation, persistence, and vigor:
Activation
Although motivation is often viewed as being behaviorally activating, the resulting behavior
activated may not always be overt and observable. For example, a rabbit freezes when a hawk flies
overhead. The rabbit’s motivation for survival results in an “activity” of immobilization, although
the rabbit’s heart rate is high because of the activation of its peripheral nervous system. Therefore,
motivation is not necessarily overt, physically observable activation. It may be, but it also may not
be.
Persistence
Persistence appears to be one of several possible indices of motivation. That is, the level of
persistence appears to be an indicator of the level of motivation. If your cat is just a little hungry, or
maybe just bored, it may follow you to the kitchen and meow around its bowl in a half-hearted
attempt to be fed. If your cat is starving, however, it may meow vociferously while pacing back and
forth near the kitchen door. It may try to get your attention by sinking its claws deep into your leg or
by licking your face. If you still refuse to feed it, your cat may rummage for food on its own,
knocking jars over, opening cabinets, and eating through wrappers.
Vigor
The intensity of the response may be associated with motivation level, but it may also be a learned
factor. For example, if a rat learned that it had to really bang on a lever to get the food pellet to fall
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because the lever had a stiff spring, the rat will bang the stuffing out of any other response level that
you put in its path. If you are a casual observer, you might assume the rat is highly motivated due to
the vigor with which it bangs the lever when, in fact, that is the only way he knows how to press a
lever. It is what it has learned to do.
As with most issues in psychology, there are various approaches to studying motivation, three of
which are the biological, the drive or learning, and the cognitive. Let us look at each of them.
The Biological Approach
The biological approach espouses naturally occurring behavior and evolution. Part of this
perspective is instinct theory. Instinct theory, as an explanation for motivated behavior, reached its
peak in the United States in the late 1800s and early 1900s. As the popularity of this theory grew, it
tried to “explain” all behaviors as “instinctive”, which led to the nominal fallacy.
For example, if you saw me playing with a three-year-old, you might explain my playfulness, my
behavior, in terms of a “paternal instinct.” However, by labeling my behavior as “paternal”, you
have done nothing but name it. You have explained nothing. Simply naming something as an
instinct does not explain it. In order to explain behavior, you cannot just label it; you must
understand the conditions that led to the behavior and the consequences that result from it.
Explanation presumes a cause-and-effect relationship and labeling a behavior provides no causal
explanation.
Early instinct approaches emphasized the continuity of human and animal behavior and were
important because they provided a foundation on which later ethological theories, motivated
behavior theories, could build. Ethological theories were based on Darwin’s theory of evolution and
were concerned with the evolution, development, and function of behavior.
Drive Theories
The concept of drive assumed that the motivation of behavior depends on a physiological need,
such as hunger, thirst, or sex. This perspective posits that the organism becomes motivated to
reduce the need or drive in any way that it can. As a motivational construct, drive is usually
associated with maintenance of homeostasis, a process in which bodily mechanisms attempt to
keep the body’s systems functioning at their optimal levels.
One significant theory in this grouping was proposed by Clark Hull (1943). Hull’s theory was
motivated by both learning theory and motivational thought, and his model for behavior was one of
survival. Hull assumed that motivation developed to meet the organic needs of the organism,
because such a system gives the animal an advantage in the struggle to survive. This is based on
the various theories of evolution. Hull proposed that behavior resulted from three factors:
. What has been learned
. The current level of drive
. The characteristics of the goal
Cognitive Theories
This group of theories involves an expectancy-value construct. Edward Tolman (1934) proposed
that theories of behavior should be studied as a whole, proposing that behavior is molar, rather
than studying it as a function of its component parts (as in a reductionist model). Tolman posited
three defining properties for molar behavior.
1. Behavior is always directed toward or away from some specific goal; behavior that is
directed toward a goal is persistent.
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2. Behaviors leading toward a goal form a consistent pattern of responses. Behavior is not
random, but represents the way in which the organism attempts to reach the goal.
3. There is selectivity to molar behavior. The shortest or easiest path to the goal will be taken.
These three characteristics imply that the organism has some understanding of the goal toward
which its behavior is leading. In a word, Tolman saw behavior as being “purposive.” Further, he
posited cognitive expectancy, suggesting that organisms learn that particular behaviors lead to
particular goals. Organisms develop an expectancy that a specific set of behaviors will lead to a
specific goal.
Achievement and Motivation
What is achievement?