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Do their own
experiences confirm or deny Harris’s theories? Why or why not?
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SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
Harry Stack Sullivan and the Interpersonal Relations Theory of
Personality
The founder of this position, Harry Stack Sullivan, was an interesting individual, and his areas of
concentration were:
. The dynamics of personality
. The dynamics and treatment of schizophrenia (he coined the term and concept of the
“schizophrenic mother”)
Sullivan posited his theory of personality within the context of developmental psychology, feeling
that to be the only viable avenue for his perspective. Sullivan felt that it was “completely
preposterous’ to assume that human behavior was determined solely by instinct, feeling instead
that human nature was so pliable and adaptable that even “the most fantastic social rules and
regulations [could] be lived up to, if they were properly inculcated in the young.” Sullivan
concluded that personality was shaped primarily by social forces, with the lengthy period of
dependence in childhood making the child particularly susceptible to the influence of others. He
proposed an incredibly powerful need for interpersonal relationships, to the extent that he believed
individuals who were deprived of interpersonal contact for extended periods would undergo
deterioration in their basic personality structure.
Consider Sullivan’s definition of personality for a moment (the relatively enduring pattern of
recurrent interpersonal situations which characterize a human life). The significant aspect of this
definition is that Sullivan intended it to include those interpersonal relationships that are illusory
as well as those which are real. So, in Sullivan’s theory, even the recluse and the psychotic have a
“personality.” Many other theories seem to apply only to the normally functioning psyche.
Sullivan and Freud shared a belief that human beings strive toward a reduction of inner tension,
that the ideal human state is one of euphoria—a condition of total equilibrium. Sullivan saw
tension as the opposite of euphoria, reciprocally related to it, and as a state similar to a state of
terror. Of course, both extremes can only be approached and neither exists in nature; we exist
somewhere on the continuum between the two. He posited seven specific epochs or stages through
which personality may develop, each epoch representing an optimal time for certain innate
capacities to reach fruition. Since he posits “epochs,” you can see that Sullivan was a stage theorist.
Epoch 1: Infancy. Infancy begins at birth and continues until the appearance of articulate speech.
This time is highlighted by the influence of maternal tenderness and anxiety. The oral zone is
important here, as it brings food and sustenance, as well as breathing, crying, and thumb-sucking.
Nursing provides the infant with its first prototaxic mode or experience in interpersonal
relationships. This is a primitive mode of experiencing internal and external stimuli, is prominent
in early infancy, consists of successive momentary discrete states, and cannot be communicated to
others or formulated into symbols (i.e., language).
Around 12 to 18 months of life, trial-and-error language begins to appear, with early sounds being
imitations of those in the environment This represents the parataxic mode, and it ushers in the
second stage of personality development. The parataxic mode is a way of experiencing internal and
external stimuli that is characterized by use of private symbols and a lack of the conventional
concepts of cause and effect.
Past infancy and moving into childhood, we see the development of the self-system, the organized
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perception of one’s self. The self-system includes the desirable “good-me” and the undesirable
“bad-me.” The system is a result of experiences with one’s own body and the reflected opinions of
significant others, and has anxiety reduction as its primary goal.
Epoch 2: Childhood. Children now begin to develop use of language and to acquire responses for
averting anxiety and parental punishment. These responses include deception, rationalization,
behaving in the way parents expect in order to please them, and increasing the use of sublimation.
Of course, some punishment does inevitably occur, and this results in growth of the “bad-me” part
of the self-system. As long as parents continue to reinforce the “good-me” part of the child’s self-
system, the child will adjust normally.
Epoch 3: The Juvenile Era. This epoch begins with the emergence of the need for playmates, which
is about the time the child enters school. The syntaxic mode becomes prominent now, and is the most
highly developed mode of experiencing internal and external stimuli. This mode is characterized by
use of socially understood symbols (i.e., words and numbers), and by the understanding of
conventional ideas of cause and effect. According to Sullivan, the ability to live with and among
other people will have developed by the end of this epoch.
Epoch 4: Preadolescence. This stage begins with the emergence of the need for a more intimate
relationship with a specific member of the same sex; Sullivan called this individual the chum. The
need for the chum appears around ages 8 to 10 years, and Sullivan considered this relationship
critical to the child’s future ability to form intimate relationships of both a sexual and nonsexual
nature during the adult years. Sullivan felt that an effective chumship could be instrumental in
altering excessive egocentricity (such as tendencies to pout when things go wrong), over
dependence and irresponsibility, and the misguided belief that we should be liked by everyone. He
saw the chum as a sort of reality check between childhood and adolescence. In addition, during
this period, we see the formation of the first structured social groups, such as scout troops.
Epoch 5: Early Adolescence. This epoch begins with puberty and the appearance of the lust
dynamism that leads to the desire for a close relationship with a member of the opposite sex.
Sullivan felt this period to be a great one for maladjustment, due to the societal restrictions on the
adolescent’s ability to satisfy the lust dynamism. He also noted that the adolescent’s early attempts
at heterosexual relationships can (and often do) lead to embarrassing outcomes, such as impotence,
frigidity, premature ejaculation, any and all of which can lead to serious damage to one’s self-
esteem. He felt that parental support during this time was critical to the successful transition of this
period. If the attempts at heterosexual relationships are successful, and they usually are, then the
child has taken another positive step up the ladder of interpersonal relations.
Epoch 6: Late Adolescence. Late adolescence originates with the achievement of satisfying sexual
activity. Of course, the adolescent is now functioning (at least part of the time) in the realm of
reality, such as working and paying taxes, and having increased social responsibilities (helping
care for an elderly grandparent or a younger sibling, moving away from home and accepting the
concurrent adult life-roles). Sullivan feels that those adolescents having the experience of attending
college have an advantage. They have an extra few years to make this transition beyond their high-
school graduation.
Epoch 7: Adulthood. Harry Stack Sullivan did not say a great deal about adulthood, except that it
represented the completion of personality development. The reason Sullivan did not say much<br />
about adulthood is that he was a psychiatrist, and psychiatrists do not get many opportunities to
observe normally functioning adults. Sullivan was smart enough to know that what he observed in
the pathological adult population was not applicable to the rest of the nonpathological population.
Nature versus Nurture
An issue that has dominated developmental psychology for years is the nature—nurture
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controversy. This issue is directly related to any discussion of personality as well. You might ask
students how much of personality they believe is genetically inherited (nature) and how much is
learned from the environment (nurture). While generally, researchers argue that both appear to play
a role in personality, you might point out that how much of a role each plays may depend on what
part of personality you are discussing. For example, genetics clearly plays an important role in
nervous system development, which can affect traits such as introversion. On the other hand, the
environment (nurture) plays an important role in emotional maturation, as evidenced by Harlow
and Spitz’s studies on the effects of early isolation. Ultimately, one of the best ways to sum up the
research on this controversy is to say that nature sets a potential range of development, and nurture
determines where, within that range, a person will end up. With some aspects of personality,
nature sets a wide range of development, giving the environment plenty of room to have an impact.
With other aspects of personality, nature sets a narrow range of development, leaving the
environment room for only a minor impact. With most aspects of personality, nature appears to set
a moderate range of potential development.
Personality: Add Women and Stir!