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2. Generalization techniques attempt to increase similarity of target
behaviors, reinforcers, models, and stimulus demands between
therapy and real-life settings
IV. Cognitive Therapies
A. Cognitive Therapies attempt to change problem feelings and behaviors by changing the
way the client thinks about significant life experiences
B. Cognitive Behavior Modification
1. Approach combines cognitive emphasis on the role of thoughts and
attitudes influencing motivations and response with behaviorist
focus on changing performance through reinforcement contingencies
2. Unacceptable behavior patterns are modified by cognitive
restructuring
3. Critical aspect is discovery by therapist and client of how the client
thinks about and expresses the problem for which therapy is sought
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C. Changing False Beliefs
1. Some cognitive therapists argue that many psychological problems
arise as a function of how people think about themselves relative to
other people and the events they face. Faulty thinking can be based
on:
a) Unreasonable attitudes
b) False premises
c) Rigid rules that put behavior on “autopilot”
2. Cognitive Therapy for Depression
a) The therapist helps the client to identify his or her irrational
ways of thinking and to learn more realistic ways to
formulate personal experiences
b) Four tactics used to change the cognitive foundation that
supports the depression:
(i) Challenging basic assumptions about his or her
functioning
(ii) Evaluating evidence the client has for and against
accuracy of automatic thoughts
(iii) Reattributing blame to situational factors rather than
client’s incompetence
(iv) Discussing alternative solutions to complex tasks
that could otherwise lead to experiences of failure
3. Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET): A comprehensive system of
personality change based on transformation of irrational beliefs that
cause undesirable emotional reactions
a) RET teaches clients to recognize “shoulds,” “oughts,” and
“musts” that are controlling their actions and preventing
them from choosing the lives they want
b) RET’s goal is to increase sense of self-worth and potential for
self-actualization
V.Existential-Humanistic Therapies
A. Background
1. Existential crises include problems in everyday living, lack of
meaningful human relationships, and absence of goals or purpose
2. Existential-humanistic philosophy gave rise to the human-potential
movement, which encompassed practices and methods enhancing the
potential of the average human being toward greater levels of
performance and greater richness of experience
B. Client-Centered Therapy
1. Primary goal is to promote healthy psychological growth of the
individual
2. Assumption: All people share the tendency to self-actualize, to reach
their potential
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3. Incongruence: a conflict between naturally positive self-image and
negative external criticism. Creates anxiety, unhappiness, and low
self-worth
4. Therapeutic strategy: To recognize, accept, and clarify client’s feelings
in an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard, nonjudgmental
acceptance and respect for the client.
C. Gestalt Therapy
1. Focus on uniting of mind and body to make the person whole
2. Goal of self-awareness by helping clients express pent-up feelings
and unfinished business from past conflicts
VI. Group Therapies:
A. Marital and Family Therapy
1. Couples counseling seeks clarity in communication between partners,
and works to improve the quality of interaction. It is more effective
in resolution of marital problems than individual therapy for only
one partner
2. Family therapy client is the entire nuclear family, with each member
treated as a member of a system of relationships
a) Focus is on altering psychological space between people
b) The interpersonal dynamics of people acting as a unit
c) Most family therapists assume problems brought to therapy
to represent situational difficulties, rather than dispositional
aspects of individuals
d) Job of family therapist is understanding the structure of the
family and the forces acting on it
B. Community Support Groups
1. Self-help groups help many people obtain psychological support in
the community setting
2. Address four basic problem areas:
a) Addictive behavior
b) Physical and mental disorders
c) Life transition or other crises
d) Trauma of family and friends of those with specific
problems
VII. Biomedical Therapies
A. Psychosurgery and Electroconvulsive Therapy
1. Psychosurgery is the general term for surgical procedures performed
on brain tissue to alleviate psychological disorders, with the
prefrontal lobotomy being best known
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2. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) is the use of electroconvulsive shock
to treat psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, mania, and,
most often, severe depression
a) ECT is successful in treatment of severe depression. It works
quickly.
b) Potentially negative effects of ECT include temporary
disorientation and memory deficits
B. Drug Therapy
1. Psychopharmacology: the branch of psychology investigating the
effects of drugs on behavior
2. The three major categories of drugs used today are:
a) Antipsychotics alter symptoms of schizophrenia. Examples
include Thorazine, Haldol, and Clozaril.
b) Antidepressants increase the activity of the neurotransmitters
norepinephrine and serotonin. Examples include Tofranil,
Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft
c) Antianxiety agents (anxiolytics) adjust levels of
neurotransmitter activity in the brain. Examples include
Valium and Xanax.
3. Prescriptions for Psychoactive Drugs
a) The rate at which drugs are prescribed changes over time
b) From 1985 to 1994, prescription of antianxiety tranquilizers
decreased from 52 to 33 percent of all mental health doctors
visits, while prescriptions for antidepressants increased from
30 to 45 percent
4. When Is Drug Therapy Necessary?