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Measures of covert
racial prejudice use content analysis of public media to discern if the same old attitudes are still
there, but under wraps. One study deserves to be highlighted for the subtle form of covert racism
it reveals, so subtle that you have probably been exposed to it and never realized its impact on
your thinking.
A blind psychology professor, Raymond Rainville, found that while listening to live broadcasts
of professional football games he was able to identify the race of the players although it was
never mentioned. Rainville reasoned that the white announcers were communicating messages
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about basic racial differences, perhaps at an unconscious level. Transcripts of the televised
commentaries of sixteen NFL games were analyzed according to a variety of content categories.
The researchers compared descriptions of an African American and a white player of the same
position who had comparable performance statistics, such as running backs O. J. Simpson and
Larry Csonka. Players were designated as “Smith” or “Jones,” and names of teams, teammates,
and cities were disguised. Three independent raters were able to identify each player correctly as
African American or white on 1 of 25 rating categories,
All differences found were favorable to whites and unfavorable to African Americans. Whites
were significantly more often:
. Recipients of sympathy, positive focus, and play-related praise
. Described as executors of aggression
. Credited with positive cognitive and physical attributes.
African Americans were more often described as:
. Being the recipients of aggression
. Having a negative, nonprofessional record, such as problems in college or with the
police (Rainville & McCormick, 1977)
All of these players were exceptional athletes, yet the white players were described as active
causal agents on the field and the African American players as passive objects moved by external
forces.
Reducing Racism
Once established, prejudice and racism are relatively resistant to extinction because of the several
needs they may serve for the individuals and the group, and the many conditions that may
encourage and maintain existing attitudes. Although progress has been made in reducing
prejudice and racism, a tremendous amount of progress remains to be accomplished.
Here are some techniques we can use to reduce racism:
. Change actions: Research has shown that contact between antagonistic groups can
promote better intergroup relations and lessen existing hostilities. Mere exposure,
however, does not help and is more likely to intensify existing attitudes. Changes as a
result of contact are most likely to occur when the contact is rewarding rather than
thwarting, when a mutual interest or goal is served, when status is equal, and when the
participants perceive that the contact was the result of their own choice.
. Change the rules and the reinforcements: Although “righteousness cannot be legislated,” a
new law or regulation provides a new system of rewards and punishments and can
thereby create a new social norm that then becomes a powerful influence on individuals
to conform to the new pattern. The same results may be achieved by more informal
agreements to change “ground rules.”
. Change the self-image of victims of prejudice: Young people who are targets of prejudice may
be “inoculated” against its crippling psychological effects and thus be helped to develop
and demonstrate their real potentials if they establish a sense of pride in their origins,
history, and group identity. The “Black is beautiful” slogan represents an effective
instance of this approach, as do “Gray Power” and “Gay Pride.”
. Change competitive encounters to cooperative ones: Environments that foster interpersonal
competition are often breeding grounds for envy, jealousy, hostility, and self-derogation.
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By creating conditions in which students must depend on one another for learning
required material, teachers can help overcome some interracial conflicts that exist in
traditional classrooms. When every member’s contribution is equally valuable, students
feel like partners rather than competitors, and those in desegregated settings can discover
the advantages of sharing knowledge and friendship with “equal and interdependent”
peers-regardless of race, creed, or sex.
In-Groups, Out-Groups, and Groupthink
The groupthink hypothesis proposes that members of small cohesive units have a tendency to
maintain esprit de corps through the unconscious development of shared illusions and related
norms. These norms subsequently interfere with the group’s critical thinking and reality testing
(Janis, 1972). The groupthink phenomenon offers an exemplar of the in-group/out-group, us-
against-them scenario. It is an annoying phenomenon at best, and a dangerous one at worst.
Consider the philosophies of a small group, caught up in the illusion of its own invulnerability,
its excluding any ideas from outside the group, and controlled by leadership tactics that subtly
sanction members who dare to suggest alternative courses of action or raise critical issues. The
guiding premise of groupthink is, “If our leader and everyone else in our group decides that it is
okay, the plan is bound to succeed. Even if it is quite risky, luck will be on our side.” (Janis, 1972,
in Frost, Mitchell, & Nord, 1982, p. 350).
Groupthink is the epitome of the “my-mind-is-made-up, don’t-confuse-me-with-facts” mentality.
This mentality is carefully guarded by all members of the group. This collective behavior tends to
surface in times of crisis and effectively closes off input from any source outside the group.
Reliance of the group on consensual validation replaces critical thinking by any one member;
reality testing is shunned. Members of the group share an illusion of unanimity, with the blanket
assumption that all members concur in the position of the group’s leader(s), creating an
atmosphere of assumed consensus of thought.
Janis (1972) offered eight characteristics of the groupthink mentality.
1. Illusion of invulnerability: Overemphasis of group strengths, and exaggeration of the
capacity to complete a risky course of action.
2. Rationalization of negative information: Collective discounting and rationalization of
warnings of imminent danger resulting from pursuit of a specific course of action.
3. Stereotyping of out-group: Sharing of distorted perceptions of rivals as being:
Too weak or stupid to pose a viable threat
Too stupid to negotiate with
4. Assumption of morality: A belief that the inherent morality of the group and its objectives
preclude any requirement to question the morality of methods employed to attain goals.
5. Self-censorship: Individual members’ doubts and misgivings are not expressed.
6. Illusion of unanimity: Lack of dissent is interpreted by the group as concurrence in
philosophies.
7. Mindguarding: Certain members of the group protect the group from negative
information by suppressing the information completely.
8. Direct social pressure: Members apply social pressure to discourage expressions of doubts
or criticism of the group’s illusions, stereotypes, or judgments.
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Cults
In expanding the text’s discussion of cults, you might review the types of people who are most
commonly recruited by cults. They are often adolescents and young adults who are somewhat
idealistic, so that they are more susceptible to the cult’s utopian message. They are likely to be
people who are psychologically vulnerable in that they are lonely, depressed, feeling rejected,
lost, hopeless, or desperate in some way. They may have had long-term problems or may have
suffered a temporary setback in their life, but they are vulnerable at that moment and the cult
promises a new direction or hope that will make them feel loved, appreciated, and special again.
They may be searching for some sense of direction in their lives or someone to blame for their
problems, and often cults seemingly provide them with both. No matter what the specific
circumstances, as the text points out, once someone is under the control of a cult, the techniques
they use to manipulate the person’s attitudes and behaviors can be extremely powerful. Which is
why it is so important for students to be aware of how cults operate before they are ever tempted
to join one.
BIOLOGHAPHICAL PROFILES
Solomon Asch (1907—1996)
Solomon Asch obtained his Ph.D. at Columbia University in 1932. He subsequently taught at the
New School for Social Research in New York City and at Rutgers University. Asch’s research and
conceptual orientation in social psychology were influenced strongly by the Gestalt school,
particularly as represented in the writings of his close friend, Max Wertheimer. Asch is best
known for his pioneering research on conformity and the effects of group pressure on the
behavior of the individual. Among his major works is the classic text Social Psychology, published
in 1952.
Stanley Milgram (1933—1984)
Stanley Milgram was born in New York City, received his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1960, and
taught briefly at Yale, before returning to Harvard in 1963 as the Executive Director of the
Comparative International Program in the Department of Social Relations. Milgram is well
known for his series of experiments on obedience to authority, which he conducted during the
early 1960s. This controversial research brought him both vehement criticism and praise,
including the American Association for the Advancement of Science’s Socio-Psychology Prize in
1965. He became distinguished professor at City University of New York in 1980. His works
include Obedience to Authority (1974) and the award-winning short film, The City and the Self
(1974).
Muzafer Sherif (1906—1988)
Muzafer Sherif obtained his masters degree at Istanbul University, Turkey. After winning a
fellowship abroad, he traveled to Harvard to study, primarily because of William James’ legacy.
He obtained a second master’s degree at Harvard, then went to Columbia University, where he
conducted his dissertation, classic research on the autokinetic effect. While at the University of
Oklahoma from 1949 to 1965, he investigated the effects of competition on the emergence of
stereotypes and intergroup hostility, and the ameliorative effects of intergroup cooperation. With
his wife, Carolyn, Sherif examined social judgments and attitudes, and the natural behavior of
adolescents in groups. From 1965 to 1972, he taught at Penn State University.
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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Aronson, E. (1994). The Social Animal, 7th Ed. New York, W. H. Freeman. A narrative approach to
social psychology. This classic presents theory and research in an interesting and very
relevant manner. Topics covered include prejudice, propaganda, war, alienation, aggression,
unrest, and political upheaval.
Deaux, K., & Wrightsman, L. (1988). Social Psychology, 5th Ed. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. A
basic text with wide coverage. Research-oriented, with emphasis on applications of social
psychology.
Evans, R. (1980). The Making of Social Psychology: Discussions with Creative Contributors. New York:
Gardner Press. A collection of Evans’ discussions with nineteen significant contributors to the
field of social psychology, and is an excellent reference for both biographical and historical
material.
Lewin, K. (1951). Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers. Edited by Dorwin
Cartwright. New York: Harpers. A classic text by the founder of the discipline of social
psychology.
Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the Self. Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and
Motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224-253. Explores the possibility that concepts of “self’
may differ cross-culturally. Presents research that suggests that Asia cultures foster an
“interdependent’ conception of self, while Western cultures foster an “independent”
conception of self
Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to Authority. New York: Harper & Row. Milgram presents his ideas
on the topic of obedience and describes his famous research involving the shocking machine.
Reber, A. S. (1985). The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. London: The Penguin Group. A concise,
cogent dictionary of even the most obscure psychological terms.
Ross, L., & Nisbett, R. (1991). The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology. New
York: McGraw-Hill. An excellent summary and review of the field of social psychology by
two leading researchers. Presents the complex and often contradictory findings of social
psychology in a manner easily understood by all.
Spiegel, D., Bloom, J., Kraemer, H., & Gottheil, E. (1994). Effect of Psychosocial Treatment on Survival
of Patients with Metastatic Breast Cancer. In Psychosocial Processes and Health: A Reader, 468-477.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Presents research that suggests participating in
social support groups can dramatically increase length of survival of women with metastatic
breast cancer. Provides a dramatic example of how social factors can influence biological
ones.
Steele, C. (1997). A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance.
American Psychologist, 52(6), 613-629. Introduces “stereotype threat’ and discusses its
influence on the performance of stereotyped individuals. Stereotype threat is a phenomenon
in which the fear of confirming a stereotype leads to anxiety that actually causes the
fulfillment of the stereotype. It is used to explain lower academic performance by stereotyped
group compared to nonstereotyped groups.
Tesser, A. (1995). Advanced Social Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill. An excellent introduction
to the field of social psychology. Individual chapters are written by leading researchers in
different areas of social psychology.
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DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 17: SEX AND GENDER
Overview
The ways in which males and females are similar and different, and how sex roles reflect
social values and psychological knowledge.
Key Issues
How sex hormones affect gender behavior in rats, how the environment affects gender roles,
reasons for self-segregation by gender among preschool children, artificial limits imposed on
female gender roles, relationship between gender roles and depression, and how gender
stereotypes in advertisements affect behavior.
Demonstrations
Sex differences in the play behavior of baby rats.
Self-segregation by gender in a preschool.
Socialization differences in gender-appropriate behavior and dress.
Interviews
Developmental neuroscientist Michael Meaney studies why male rats are more apt to engage
in rough-and-tumble play, while female rats are consistently less aggressive and less
physical.
Eleanor Maccoby examines why children tend to socialize with other children of the same
sex.
Jean Block examines the differences in the socialization of male and female children and the
effects on their relationships with other children of the same and opposite sex.
PROGRAM 20: CONSTRUCTING SOCIAL REALITY
Overview
The factors that contribute to our interpretation of reality and how understanding the
psychological processes that govern our behavior may help us to become more empathetic
and independent members of society.
Key Issues
Power of cognitive control, the Pygmalion effect, how teachers’ expectations affect children’s
test scores, the development of prejudice in a grammar school classroom, and the principle of
compliance as illustrated in television ads.
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Demonstrations
The self-fulfilling prophecy study, or the Pygmalion effect.
The principles of compliance illustrated with actual television advertisements.
Jane Elliot’s blue-eyed versus brown-eyed case study.
Students’ enhanced self-esteem and performance due to the jigsaw classroom.
New Interview
Steven Hassan looks at the ways cults use mind control methods to reshape people’s identity
and reconstruct the way they perceive reality.
Interviews
Grammar school teacher Jane Elliot divides her classroom into a superior blue-eyed group
and an inferior brown-eyed group to study the development and nature of prejudice.
Robert Rosenthal studies how teachers’ expectations can affect children’s test scores.
Elliot Aronson and Alex Gonzalez examine how cooperation rather than competition changes
the way students see themselves and their peers.
Robert Cialdini examines the principles of reciprocation, scarcity, authority, commitment,
liking, and consensus in marketing and advertising.
FILMS AND VIDEOS
The Candid Camera Classics for Social Psychology consists of 16 episodes that I selected, with
Allen Funt’s assistance, to dramatize many key social psychology topics, such as compliance,
conformity, obedience, social influence, authority, power, morality, and bias in field surveys.
Each of these creative gems is funny and entertaining, while teaching important messages about
human nature. Since they vary in duration from 2 to 6 minutes, a given episode can be used to
launch a lecture as a thematic overview, to underscore a conclusion from a body of empirical
research, or to provide a source for opening a discussion of the behaviors that the class and the
instructor observed together. The Candid Camera Classics come with an instructor’s guide (that I
prepared with Allen Funt) that will assist teachers in getting the most mileage from using them,
McGraw-Hill distributes this video (VHS) and a laser disk version. For ordering information, call
1-800-338-3987.
Abilene Paradox (1984). VCFM, 27 minutes
A gently humorous exposition of social psychological concepts such as groupthink and
deindividuation. Demonstrates how the cognitive processing of a well-intentioned, cooperating
group can go far astray from the individual views of the members.
Captive Minds: Hypnosis and Beyond (1985). JFMU, 55 minutes
Explains how long-term conditioning takes place, such as how the Moonies hold on to their
disciples, and how the Marine Corps generates such fierce loyalty. The indoctrination methods of
disparate institutions are surprisingly similar. Recruits are isolated in unfamiliar environments,
kept busy to the point of exhaustion, confused, frightened, and their sense of identity weakened.
Over time, they become vulnerable to suggestion. They then readily submit to a strong
authoritarian leader. Reminds us that we are all vulnerable to psychological manipulations, some
of which have social and political consequences.
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Conformity (1989). Insight Media, 30 minutes
This program examines the pros and cons of conforming behavior, looking at its dangers as well
as its utility in group decision making, classroom activities, and military regimentation. It
introduces reasons for conformity and investigates some of the variables that predict who is
likely to conform.
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Conformity and Independence (1975). IU (MTI), 23 minutes
Uses field and laboratory settings to look at social psychology’s main findings and principles in
the area of conformity and independence. Includes Sherif s experiments on norm formation;
Asch’s experiments on group pressure, and Crutchfield’s variation; Milgram’s experiment on
action conformity; Kelman’s three processes of compliance; and Moscovici’s theoretical views.
Prejudice (1989). Insight Media, 30 minutes
Showing four scenarios of prejudiced behavior, this program explores stereotypes and emotions
underlying prejudice. It discusses possible methods for reducing discrimination.
Productivity and the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The Pygmalion Effect (1976). (CRM) MCGFY, 28
minutes
This film illustrates self-fulfilling prophecies in several settings, including social science and
industrial management experiments. Illustrations include placebo effects and bank runs during
the depression.
Reflections on 100 Years of Social Psychology. (Available from California State University,
Fresno, Department of Psychology, 5310 N. Campus Drive, Fresno, CA 93740-0011.)
An edited video of presentations by Elliot Aronson, Leonard Berkowitz, Morton Deutsch, Harold
Gerard, Harold Kelley, Albert Pepitone, Bertram Raven, Robert Zajonc, and Philip Zimbardo to
accompany a text commemorating 100 years of experimental social psychology.
Social Psychology (1990). Insight Media, 30 minutes
Social psychology attempts to understand the myriad of social forces that influence our attitudes
and actions. This program discusses several research studies and findings on stereotyping and
prejudice, attribution theory, and the power of social roles. Philip G. Zimbardo’s prison
experiments are described and analyzed.
War and Violence (1986). (FFHS), 52 minutes
Demonstrates that poverty and violence go hand in hand. Depicts inner-city Boston and a lesson
on walking away from a fight. Includes an interview with a young Hispanic in Oakland who
talks about the machismo that underlies gang violence. Explains that around the world violence
is fueled by religion, nationalism, or race and made worse by politicians’ rhetoric. Looks at the
possibility of warfare today and the repercussion it has on the whole human race. From the
Human Animal Series, hosted by Phil Donahue.
The Wave (1981). 44 minutes
Observes as teacher Burt Ross re-enacts a 1967 social experiment in which a movement similar in
philosophy to that of the Nazi Third Reich is created. Shows how the ideas of power, discipline,
and superiority were drilled into his students and how willingly most of them adopted these
ideas. Illustrates the attitudes that allow people to deny responsibility for-and even knowledge
of-the injustices occurring around them.
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EXPERIMENTS AND DEMONSTRATIONS
BY PHILIP G. ZIMBARDO
STRATEGIES FOR DISCUSSION SECTIONS: EXPERIMENTS AND
DEMONSTRATIONS
Having students become directly involved in research is one of the best ways to put life into psychology.
Toward that goal, we have prepared a set of research projects to be conducted in class. They are designed to
sample different areas of psychology, to illustrate various methodological approaches, and to offer a range
of activities that can engage the entire class.
Ideally, participating in these demonstration research projects should enable the student to get a feeling for
the exciting process of analyzing complex psychological problems, generating quantitative and qualitative
data, and drawing conclusions. Indeed, it is precisely by experiencing this process of discovery that the
student will come to appreciate the products of psychological investigation that are presented in the text
and lectures.
When this experience works as intended, the student’s outlook is transformed from the passive: “What do I
need to kn