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Students are not to taste the lemonade
powder (US) but are to experience if they salivated after “Pavlov” and without the US. Get a show
of hands of those who did salivate and record it as a percentage of the class giving a conditioned
response.
6. The same results are obtained with eyes opened or closed during test trials.
7. After most of the class shows acquisition (80 to 100 percent of the class), start extinction training by
withholding the “Dip” lemonade tasting procedure; instead, all trials are test trials “Pavlov”—
Experience?
8. Have each student write down how strong the salivary response he or she experienced on the
conditioning trials was compared to the lemonade trials. Also, inquire about the taste sensation,
physical response (“puckering”), and any cognitive responses (e.g., actively trying not to be
conditioned by thinking of something else).
DATA ANALYSIS
1. Plot the acquisition and extinction data.
2. Add water and ice to remaining crystals and pause for refreshment.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Gibbs, G. D. (1983). Making Classical Conditioning Understandable through Demonstration Technique. Teaching of
Psychology, 10, 112-113.
Pavlov, I. P. (1928). Conditioned Reflexes (W. H. Grant, Trans.). New York: International.
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STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING MEMORY
OBJECTIVES
1. To discuss some of the ways in which memory operates in everyday life.
2. To consider how memory can be systematically distorted.
3. To demonstrate some of the ways in which memory can be improved.
4. To perform a within-subject experiment on immediate versus delayed recall as a function of depth
of processing.
OVERVIEW
The issue of memory and memory enhancement is inherently interesting. To what extent are differences in
test performance between students a function of difference in their memory capacity? To what extent can
this capacity be expanded? In this section we will:
1. Begin by going around the room and sharing (a) our earliest memories and (b) the most important
thing we have ever forgotten.
2. Discuss how it is that we know those events actually took place. What are validity checks on
memory?
3 . Determine which students remembered to bring in a previously suggested item (e.g., idea cards, if
they are being used). Ask those students who remembered to bring in the item what devices they
used to facilitate their recall, and ask those students who forgot the item why they believe their>
memory failed.
4. Review a variety of strategies for improving memory.
5. Conduct one or both of the demonstrations on memory enhancement.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Memory has long been of interest to psychologists and philosophers. William James said the only thing that
distinguishes memory from other mental processes (perception, imagination, reasoning, etc.) is the belief
that the given event actually occurred in the past. In his novel, 1984, George Orwell described techniques to
destroy this set of beliefs by rewriting the past to make it congruent with the present situation. Perhaps the
most famous injunction about memory is philosopher George Santayana’s reminder that “Those who forget
the past are condemned to repeat it.” It is possible at this point to mention some instances of “social
amnesia,” such as the holocaust in Germany, the internment of Japanese American citizens in U.S.
concentration camps during World War II, or, more recently, the Jonestown massacre. More typical
examples of memory distortion from psychological literature comes from Bartlett’s classic study of “The
War of the Ghosts,” Allport and Postman’s study of rumor transmission, and Loftus’ recent demonstrations
of the unreliability of eyewitness testimony.
Common to all these examples is the susceptibility of memory to distortion. However, the emphasis in this
demonstration will be on ways to improve the accuracy of memory. The earliest known account of memory
enhancement comes from the Latin writer Cicero, who tells a story of how Simonides was able to recall the
identities of a large number of banquet guests who were accidentally killed and mutilated beyond
recognition. He did so by associating each guest with the place, or locus, at which he or she had been
sitting. This mnemonic device later became known as the method of loci. Other memory enhancement
strategies, many of which have been popularized by Lorayne and Lucas in The Memory Book include:
1. Associating what is to be remembered with what is already known–in some ridiculous way. In
using this technique to remember who wrote “The War of the Ghosts,” for example, one might
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imagine a ghost munching on a Bartlett apple.
2. Exaggerating the size, number, or some other characteristic of what is to be remembered. For
example, one might remember to buy apples at the supermarket by imagining a shopping cart
brimming over with apples.
3. Replacing abstract labels with vivid, concrete images whose names sound similar to the original
thing to be remembered. The name “Zimbardo” might therefore be remembered as “sitar show,”
“limb cargo,” or “Z embargo,” while Joe Smith becomes “Joe’s mitt.”
4. Substituting vivid, similar-sounding images for the original items to be remembered and linking
these images together in a coherent story (see American States Demonstration below). This
mnemonic technique has been called “narrative chaining”.
Narrative chaining is curious because in one sense it ought not to work; the learner’s task is to recall a given
amount of material by putting it in a context that requires first learning a much greater amount of material.
The following experiment is designed to test the validity of the assertion that memory can be enhanced
through learning with the narrative chaining method.
PROCEDURE FOR BRIEF “AMERICAN STATES” DEMONSTRATION
Subjects
All students participate as subjects. No maximum or minimum.
Time required for Research
10 minutes
7-ime required for discussion
5-20 minutes
Method
1. Ask students to estimate how long it would take them to memorize the first 10 states in alphabetical
and reverse alphabetical order. Also, ask how long it would take the entire class to do so. Ask
students to raise their hands if they believe the instructor can teach the first 10 states to everyone
within 5 minutes (most should raise their hands). Ask how many believe the same can be
accomplished in under 60 seconds (most should lower their hands).
2. Read the story contained in Materials, using dramatic emphases wherever possible. (It helps to
have practiced this with a stopwatch before class, to ensure that the reading will be less than 60
seconds.)
3. On completion, ask the students to list the states in alphabetical order, turn the page over, and do so
in reverse alphabetical order. Three minutes should be sufficient time.
4. Go through the list aloud with the class and have students score how many states they
remembered. Summarize the scores by drawing frequency distributions on the chalkboard. Ideally,
the majority of students will recall most or all of the items correctly.
Materials
“Let’s start the top of our chart with an album (Alabama), and on that album see a bunch of baked Alaskas
(Alaska). Now envision this album with all these baked Alaskas floating through an air zone (Arizona), but
a voice from the air zone says enough of all these sinful baked Alaskas, there will be rain for forty days and
forty nights so next you see yourself sawing an ark (Arkansas). You need animals for your ark, so the first
one you call is a fawn (California). You notice it’s a strange fawn, though, because it has colored toes
(Colorado). You can’t have that, so you cut them off, but then the fawn can’t walk into the ark, so you
connect the cuts (Connecticut). The fawn climbs aboard, and your next animal is a woman. Of course, her
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name is Della (Delaware). Della’s wearing flowers (Florida), so she looks very nice for the manimal on the
ark–George (Georgia).”
PITFALLS TO AVOID
1. Be sure to have students’ undivided attention before reading.
2. Avoid reading the story in a monotone voice.
PROCEDURE FOR DEPTH-OF-PROCESSING DEMONSTRATION
(Developed by Scott Fraser at the University of Southern California.)
Depth of processing and expanding memory through narrative chaining under varied conditions of
rehearsal: This demonstration enables students to compare their ability to recall lists of common words with
and without the use of narrative chaining by repeating the words or having a distraction to overcome.
It is obviously important for students to be able to recall accurately materials they have studied. Often,
differences among students’ exam grades reflect not how much or hard the students have studied, but
rather how good their memory was for what they learned. Are such differences in memory completely
determined by inherent differences in native ability or are they in part attributable to the ways in which
people learn and store information?